Practice Paper 1 - peacemaking/peacekeeping international relations 1918-36

1. (a) Source E elaborates the terms set in the Treaty of Lorcano. In the treaty, the politicians agreed that the states bordering the Rhineland would abjure the use of force on each other in hopes to gain the territory. They also agreed to demilitarize the Rhineland and western frontiers and wrote terms for Germany's admission into the League of nations. These actions were significant because Germany's willingness to concede and join the League of Nations was seen as a contribution to European security. The countries also agreed on the evacuation of the Rhineland before 1930 in the treaty.

(b) Source D is a cartoon depicting France's desire to strenthen the League of Nations' covenant by regulating that if any members are attacked, all other members would assist in defense for that member. The cartoon shows Aristide Briand, Austen Chanmberlain, and Gustav Stresemann putting all hand in to cheer on the new protocol, however, Briand is wearing a baseball glove behind his back. This conveys the goals of Briand to appear civil and peaceful while secretly planning an offensive attack.

2. In sources B and C, discussing the Treaty of Lorcano, both sources agree on its effect on increased security between Germany and France as well as general security among nations. Both sources also believe that the Treaty provides for a means of peaceful settlement of disputes between Germany and other countries. Both sources believe that the Treaty of Lorcano provided for settlement between European countries.

The sources differ, however on the repercussions of the Treaty. Source B argues that the world after the Treaty of Lorcano was not far from agreements betweens governments to exterminate war completely. Source C, however, argues that the Treaty is likely to be impracticle in application. Also, while Source B discusses the effects of the Treaty of Lorcano on the world, Source C elaborates on the effects of the Treaty on Britain and France, deeming that the Treaty precluded any joint military alliance discussion.

3. Source A - Source A is an extract from a speech given by Gustav Stresemann on October 16, 1925, shortly after signing the Lorcano Treaty. The purpose of this speech is to outline the political advantages of signing the treaty and the profound hope that there would be more peace to come. This source is valuable in that it outlines Stresemann's opinions regarding the Treaty of Lorcano from a first hand perspective. This source is limited in that it does not place the Treaty in historical context. Also, because it is a public speech, a lot of Stresemann's motives and personal opinions are most likely censored.

Source C - Source C is an extract from the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office website. The purpose of this document is to elaborate the effects of the Lorcano Treaty on British, French, and German relations. The value of this source lies in its focus on France's motives for signing the Lorcano Treaty. The source also outlines the repercussions of the Treaty. This source is limited in the sense that it does not place the event in historical context, nor does it include an author or reputable source.

4. The Lorcano Conference of 1925 was a convergence of major European powers and aggressors during WWI to determine the ramifications in terms of land redefinition. The culminating Treaty of Lorcano established the set borders for western Europe but left eastern territories less established. The Treaty greatly affected Germany, but marginally impacted smaller nations as well. Upon signing the treaty on December 1, many European nations felt they were on their way to peace, however agression was slowly building internally.
Following the signing of the Treaty of Lorcano, many nations were optimistic that the Treaty would lead to peacemaking and peacekeeping worldwide. Source A, an exerpt from a speech by Stresemann after signing the treaty, demonstrates the idealism of the signing nations, at least publicly, of the positive repercussions of the Treaty. Source B, a speech also elaborates the world's hope that such a treaty could be responsible for bringing nation's one step closer to life without war. However, beneath the initial excitement, many were skeptical of the Treaty and it's ultimate impact. Source C, an extract from the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office website, elaborates the wrench that the Treaty of Lorcano put between a potential British-French alliance. Source D, a political cartoon, depicts the signing of the Treaty of Lorcano with Chamberlain, Stresemann, and Briand's hands all in with one of Briand's hands behind his back with a boxing glove on. This shows the predicted outcome of the suppresion of Germany. Finally, Source E, an extract from a novel about Germany, outlines the terms of the Treaty of Lorcano and their rigorous pressure on Germany.
While initially optimistic about the impact of the Treaty of Lorcano, many nations realized that the Treaty would have many long term ramifications.

3 WWII Documents Outlined

Document 4.1 - Hitler's view of the chief aims of future German foreign policy in 1925, excerpt from Mein Kampf

• Secure land that German people are entitled too (Lebensraum, perhaps?)
• Right to land boundaries lies in strength - created by man only
• Don't need to guard the 'poor little nations' but rather be aggressive!
• "Germany will either be a world power or there will be no Germany."
• Break from colonial & commercial policy of pre-war period and shift to soil policy of future
• Russia in mind
• This document: foreshadow Hitler's foreign policies and the Nazi Party, show the persuasion of Hitler's ideology in a crumbled/post-war state
  

Document 4.2 - The 'Quarantine Speech' by President F.D. Roosevelt, October 5, 1937

• World in a tumultuous state - killing without declaration of war
• Nations seeking peace must make an effort to those who violate treaties
  
• People creating international anarchy and instability - cannot be escaped through isolation or neutrality (setting the stage for US involvement, sort of)
• Must create laws and moral standards to be adhered to by all
• US adopt policy of peace and avoid involvement in war
• This address: outlines America's hope for peace, condemns worldwide violation of treaties, pledges lack of US involvement (a little hypocritical, perhaps?)

Document 4.8 - Japan makes the decision for war, report from the conference of the imperial Japanese government (July 2, 1941)

• 3 goals:

1. Follow a policy to result in the establishment of "Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere"; contribute to world peace no matter the world situation (lie lie lie)
2. Try to effect a settlement of China incident; seek to establish base for security and preservation of the nation; advance South
3. Remove all obstacles to achieve above goals

• Prepare for war with Great Britain and the US - will not be deterred by potential war
• This report: Show Japan's morals and future actions, demonstrate desire for land and expansion, foreshadow the attack of US and Japan's involvement in WWII
  

History IA - ROUGH Plan of Investigation

Research Question: To what extent did Emiliano Zapata’s aims for the Mexican Revolution succeed in the Constitution of 1917?

A. Plan of Investigation

In 1910, Mexico was plunged into an internal revolution for the presidency. From the Southern portion of the country, Emiliano Zapata rose as a leader of the revolution. Although Zapata was ultimately unsuccessful in achieving the presidency, many of his policies outlined in the Plan of Ayala became part of Mexico’s Constitution of 1917. The purpose of this investigation is to determine to what extent Emiliano Zapata’s aims for the Mexican Revolution succeeded in the Constitution of 1917.
This investigation will neither discuss tactics or battles used by Zapata nor the aims of other leaders of the Mexican Revolution. This investigation will only cover the relative success of Zapata’s aims in the Constitution of 1917; the repercussions today will not be discussed.
As a primary search for information, I will read Villa and Zapata: A History of the Mexican Revolution. After learning of the general Mexican Revolution chronology, I will consult additional sources to determine opinions regarding Zapata’s relative success. Finally, I will read the text of the Plan de Ayala and the Constitution of 1917 to compare Zapata’s aims to the outcomes in the Constitution.
(186 words)

Origins of WWII - Mr. Udesen Notes (Origins Book)

Pre-1933:

• Hitler rise in Germany
• Ism-fest - militarism, nationalism, industrialism, imperialism (post-WWI Division of land)
• Economic Crisis - inflation, depression, reparation
• 3 evils - German government conundrum - Dictator, Weimar disfunction, Nazi
• Treaty of Versailles and the League of Nations
  

1933:

• Hitler consolidates and builds - book burnings, laws against civil rights and Jewish, no opposition parties or trade unions, first concentration camps (prison), swastika made national flag, brownshirt secret police
• Communism to the east (hate hate hate)
• Opposition builds outside of Germany - Hitler cautious with foreign policy up to October
  
• October - Germany out of the League of Nations

1934:

• Nazi/Polish peace treaty (non-aggression pact)
• Beginning of Anschluss talk - annexing of Austria, leader of Austria says no way...eventually assassinated
  
• "Night of Long Knives" - massacres of opposition
• After NoLK - abolishes presidency/republic, ends Weimar Constitution, Fuhrer (new title meaning "leader")

1935:

• Re-armament - military was 400,000; supposed to be 100,000 according to the Treaty of Versailles
• "Stresa Front" - France, Italy, and Britain - reprimanding Germany, but really did nothing
• Italy attacks Ethiopia (non-colonized, African republic) - publicly reprimanded by Britain/France
  

1936:

• Hitler takes Rhineland - small reprimanding, but no consequences
  
• Spanish Civil War happening - Germans & Italians use as a testing ground - Britain, France, Italy, & US remain neutral
• Success in Germany - Austria under influence, but respect sovereignty
• Hitler's 4 year plan - economic focus on rearmament
• Rome-Berlin Alliance
• German-Japan Alliance
• Unemployment in Germany eradicated
  
• US uninterested - neutral or looking for a profit?, able to remain isolated
• Japan defense spending increase (31 to 47% in 4 years) and increasing sphere of influence
• 1937 - Japan invade Manchuria, China ask the LoN for help, but only reprimanded Japan

1937 - 1938 Appeasement:

• Why appeasment?

1. horrors of war
2. lack of faith in the League of Nations
3. felt the Germans were punished too harshly in the Treaty of Versailles
4. did not want to spend money going into the economy on rearmament
5. French-British Alliance strained
6. British had virtually no military strength
   

• Hitler looking for a reason to go to war, no reprimands, go all out

1937:

• Hossbach Memorandum (Hitler's goals) - conquest of the east (Lebensraum), take over Ausria and Czechoslovakia

1938:

• Anschluss - annexation of Austria - no shots fired upon entering Vienna
• End of the Treaty of Versailles - just dominated
• Czech Crisis - Germany want Sudaten land (previously theirs before Treaty of Versailles)
• Sept. Munich Agreement- Hitler, Musselini, France, and Chamberlain meet and give Sudatenland to Germany - rest of Czech supposed to remain autonomous
• German-Russian pact to not fight each other
• Nov. Kristalnocht - pillaged Jewish businesses and synagogues

1939:

• Feb. - British-French Alliance
• March - Germany takes Czechoslovakia defying Munich Agreement
• Musselini go after Albania
• Aug. 23 - Nazi-Soviet Pact in secret
• Sept. 1 - Hitler invade Poland
• Sept. 3 - Britain and France declare war
  

The Punitive Expedition

Zapata and Carranza - To the Death!

• August 1914-1915 (Mexico City) - Obregon's sanctions, then blissful Zapata interlude, the Villa reign of terror, then Obregon (28 Jan to 11 Mar, 1915), then Zapata
• Zapata have 2 principles:

1. support village leaders against professionals
2. civilians take precedence over military

• Zapata see Villa's campaigns as means and land reform as ends
• 11 July - Pablo Gonzalez ocupy Mexico City - Zapata thought Carranza would be as short lived as Huerta
• November 1915 - Carranza announce definitive campaign to end Zapata's hegemony - paranoia and suspicion suffuse zapatistas
• December 1915 - Zapata try 4-pronged counteroffensive: Morelos, Puebla, S. Mexico State, and Federal District
• 1916 - Carranza try to destroy Zapata - offer land reform, purge army of ex-zapatistas, add 20,000 troops to Army of Morelos
• Autumn 1915 - Woodrow Wilson felt he had to recognize Carranza's government

Villa and the US

• Issue manifesto - declare Wilson's recognition of Carraza as quid pro quo for massive concessions by Carranza - harbor anti-American animosity
• 8 March - Billa attack Columbus, NM - 4 possible motives:

1. personal revenge against arms dealer Sam Ravel
2. US capitalists pay Villa to encourage Wilson to occupy Senora and Chihuahua
3. acted alone - pure impulse and spontanaeity
4. provoke US and discredit Carranza

• Wilson forced to act - send 3 brigades to Mexico to search for Villa
• Vila gain support for his anti-gringo propaganda
• Punitive Expedition succeed, Wilson refuse to withdraw because Carranza had not made any concessions to the US
• Carranza want Wilson out, Wilson want Carranza to join the US, Wilson and Carranza want to eliminate Villa, and Villa want to eliminate Carranza and Wilson
• May - Villa raid Glenn Springs, TX

US and Carranza:

• Carranza tell US that troops must be withdrawn immediatly - done by early 1917
• June 1916 - Wilson call for the end of civil war in Mexico and ask Mexicans to support Carranza as credible authority
• 21 June - fight between US and Carranza - war did not break out because neither leader wanted it
• Wilson embargo food, arms, gold and credit to Carranza
• Zimmermann Telegram - Febuary 1917 - if Carranza attack US, Germany support Mexico financially and militarily and help regain territory lost during the Mexican-American War - England intercept the telegram and deliver to the US
  

Civil War Notes

• Obregon - caught between who to ally with - ally with Carranza only because of hatred for Villa and Zapata - figured to steal presidency, but outmaneuvered
• Villa stay out of conflict (march to North) - Mexico plunged into a year of Civil War
• Unclear what each side was fighting for - most likely power / culture

Villa versus Carranza:

• 3 issues divide Villa and Carranza

1. role of central government - Carranza want strong control of everything, Villa want quasi-autonomous state
2. land reform - Villa confiscate estates for military utopia, Carranza return estates to wealthy
3. attitudes to the US - Carranza anti-American, Villa pro-American (at least briefly), see Woodrow Wilson as Madero-esque

• Villa - "Some Americans...were capable of seeing Villa as, simultaneously, both the 'man on horseback' and the champion of democracy..." - Alan Knight
• Villa advantages - one victory would set off Carranza, controlled most of Mexico, unbroken lines of communication, US favorite, and charismatic
  
• Villa weaknesses - careless of image, increased autocratism, alienation of middle class by soldiers' behavior, and others were envious of him
• Obregon - recruit urban working class for Carranza by promising improved conditions for fighting now without antagonizing the middle class
• Carranza propaganda better, also saw arising problem of debt peonage
• Villa cheated on arms deals and running low on exportable cattle and cotton - Villa enthusiasm for US dwindle

Villa's Downfall:

• July 10, 1915 - After a long struggle Obregon turn the plight of the Civil War in favor of Carranza
• How did Villa lose? - strategic blunder, tactical errors, ignored the advice of Felipe Angeles, loss of foreign interest
• 4 Villa foundations crumble:

1. reputation for invincibility
2. largesse toward havenots
3. promise of land reform
4. perception that the US was on his side

• October 14, 1915 - Fierro die in quicksand
• Villa spend last days in Chihuahua City executing followers he suspected of wanting sancuary in the US
• December 1915 - Villa left with 2,000 followers
• Villa retreat to sierras with 200 dorados to fight guerrilla style again
  

WWII Origins Document Summaries / OPVLs

Document 3.2 - Hitler's view of the Versailles Treaty

Summary: Hitler believes that the Treaty of Versailles was a tactic to repress Germans from freedom. He believes that the Germans must stand up to the treaty to break from the treachery.

OPVL: This source is from Adolf Hitler's novel Mein Kampf ("My Struggle") written while imprisoned. The purpose of this document is to elaborate his opinions regarding the outcomes of the Treaty of Versailles as well as outline his goals for a powerful Germany of the future. Through this document, Hitler also aims to convince others to unify under his idealism and for affected citizens to get angry about the German struggle post-WWI. The value of this source lies in it's ability to demonstrate Hitler's aims and objectives in his own words. Also, this source accurately shows Hitler's power of persuasion. This source is limited, historically because it lacks perspective or context. This source also is fogged by personal bias and persuasion.

Document 3.4 - Reparations against Germany: an American view

Summary: The document discusses that the magnitude of the reparations were large and created great strain on Germany. The writer believes that due to the severity of the Paris Peace Conference, German psychology has dwindled adding political complications.

OPVL: This source is a written opinion by J. F. Dulles, an American delegate at the Paris Peace Conference. The purpose of this document is to discuss the magnitude of German reparations and the author's opinion regarding the severity. This document is valuable because of it's first hand perspective of the Paris Peace Conference and its outcomes. This source is limited, however, because it does not express the general opinion of an entity, but rather a personal digression. Also, the source lacks historical context and perspective and is written informally and therefore gives less broad of historical insight.

Origins of WWII Notes (pg. 53 - 64)

The League of Nations and the Limits of International Cooperation, 1919-33

• League of Nations founded to: 'respect and preserve against external aggression the territorial integrity and existing political independence of all members' and 'take action aginst any member regarded as an aggressor'
• started from Paris Peace Conference
• US senate block US entry - take away from the credibility of the League of Nations
• failed to implement Geneva Protocol of collective military action

The World Disarmament Conference

• 1932 - 61 nations and 5 non-members aimed to set limits on army, air-force, and naval weapons
• Germany left conference and would only return if given equal treatment - October 1933, Germany leave the League of Nations

The Political Climate of the Weimar Republic

• 'German Problem' - Europe agreed that peace could only be secured if Germany could accept the terms of the Treaty of Versailles
• Weimar Republic deeply flawed - constitution (Article 48) gave the president the power to rule without parliamentary support in an emergency - heavily depended on the power of the military

The 'Great Inflation' and Reparations

• WWI borrowing led to financial crises - blamed on Germany
• Reparations became a large controversy - Germany unable to pay

The Dawes Plan and the Treaty of Lorcano

• Germany decide to take conciliatory approach to the Treaty of Versailles to inspire revision
• April 1924 - Dawes Plan - Germany make annual payments in return for a loan raised in US, France never use force to gain payment
• 1925 - Treaty of Lorcano - Germany accept the terms of western frontiers from Versailles in return for the end of occupation of the Rhineland, no inspection of the German military, and Germany join the League of Nations
• Stresemann's real goals: end reparations, liberate Germany from occupying forces, and readjust eastern frontiers

The Threat to German Decocracy: Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party

• Problems simmering - German recovery dependent of US loans, political bitterness, and middle class anger over economic losses
• Hitler's 4 aims ('Mein Kampf'):

1. destroy the Treaty of Versailles
2. gain territory ('Lebensraum') in East Europe
3. include German-speakers in the 'Third Reich'
4. create 'racially pure' dominant Germany

The Wall Street Crash

• WWI create instability in world currency, high government debts, breakdown of trade, lack of investment capital, unemployment, and high inflation
• World economy too dependent on the stability of US economy

The Manchurian Crisis

• 1930 - growth of military dependency and collapse of parliamentary democracy in Japan
• Sept. 1931 - Japanese military occupy Manchuria - China ask for League of Nations help, but denied - start to create lack of faith in the League of Nations

Hitler's Rise to Power

• Germany: unemployment rise, economy collapse, instudtrial production fall, political catastrophe
• 13 March, 1932 - Hitler challenge von Hindenburg for presidency - defeated - Reelection 31 July, 1932 - Nazi Party the largest in Reichstag
• 30 January, 1933 - von Hindenburg make Hitler the German chancellor
  

The Convergence of the Twain Notes

Emiliano Zapata:

• November 24, 1914 - Zapatistas enter Mexico City more as sightseers than conquerers - Zapata was more idealistic in vision but never aimed to capture the state and institute national change
• Zapata had a hostility toward the state, dislike of the railway, mystical feeling for the land, and had a cult of simplicity
• Appealed to anarchists and Christian mystics
• 4 Problems: unable to spark revolution in the 'deep South,' endemic banditry, ideals dissimilar to the Revolution, and unsure how to make Villa an ally
• Endemic banditry - individuals using the mask of the 'revolution' to settle local disputes and personal vendettas - bandits targeted enemies of Zapata to rape and loot and put the destruction under Zapata's name
• Dualism of the Revolution - hacienda both a means of oppressing the peasantry and a fetter on capitalism - under attack by peasants demanding land reform and northern entrepreneurs keen to use more advanced technology
• Zapata would not let profit maximization override the independence of villages - but to fix, Zapata built 4 sugar mills to lead others toward a market-oriented economy

Zapata versus Villa:

• Zapata was concerned with agrarian reform and local self-government
• Villa was a pragmatist - followers were military colonists, agricultural workers, miners, railwaymen, industrial workers, the middle class, and some hacendados
• North - entrepreneurship focused, ranchers instead of communal land, concerned with power
• South - social and concerned with communal land
• "Zapata is a revolutionary, but knows nothing of war." - Felipe Angeles
• December 4, 1914 - Zapata and Villa meet for the first time - decided they had no personal political ambitions, wanted a free hand in their own spheres, president would be under their control (except foreign policy), decide to not impede each other's pursuit of personal enemies, Villa agree to supply Zapata with necessary artillery to defeat Carranza
• Villa weakness - army could campaign anywhere, but had no national plans or interests
• Zapata weakness - army was to weak to campaign nationwide

The Downfall:

• Villa fail to keep control of his men - rape, murder, and pillage Mexico City
• Interim president Eulalio Gutierrez break from Villa/Zapata, issue a manifesto denouncing both for their reign of terror, inability to discipline their men, printing of worthless paper money, and lack of foreign policy - Gutierrez unsuccessful and flees to Carranza
• Inability of Villa & Zapata to cooperate was the principal reason for their ultimate defeat